Lecture 1 - Introduction

We will start by studying Western (Classical Greek) philosophy. In particular, we shall look into Thales, Pythagoras, and Heraclitus’s philosophy.

Moving further, we enter the Socratic period. Here, we shall study Socrates (obviously), Plato, and Aristotle.

Then, we shall learn about Modern Philosophy - Thomas Hobbes and Rene Descartes (Why are we studying mathematicians?).

kairos - Universal truth, the right, critical, or opportune moment.

We will also look into Indian Philosophy. It consists of 6 major realms, but we will cover Charvaka, Samkhya (Numbers?), and Buddhism.

From what I understand, we will read a book called “The Courage to Exist: A Philosophy of Life and Death in the Age of Coronavirus” by Ramin Jahanbegloo. Reading the book will reduce the syllabus in Modern philosophy.

Evaluation policy

• Assignment - 10%
• Quiz - 10%
• Midsem - 30% - Short questions (1 line answers) or Objective (Yay!) and 1 Essay question
• Endsem - 50% - 2 Essays, Short questions and Objective.

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy is a humanistic discipline. Philosophy is related to human life. This relation is epistemological. By epistemology, we mean study of knowledge - theory of knowledge. Its epistemological relation unfolds human aspiration for higher knowledge concerning the reality, or the underlying principle of the reality.

The underlying principle of human existence or the existence of the entire cosmos or the reality brings out the discourse on metaphysics. Philosophy in fact began with metaphysics. Philosophical inquiry was metaphysical inquiry.

Does something exist or not? Is something meaningful or not? Philosophy is an endless quest for gaining an understanding of reality. Humans have cultivated the value of seeking knowledge. Metaphysics talks about what really exists in the universe. Thales theorised water is the fundamental element of the universe.

Lecture 2

We had a brief discussion on the meaning of philosophy and its origins. It originated from the metaphysical questions that try to understand reality.

Metaphysics studies ontology or the existence of being. At the beginning of the philosophical discourse, the metaphysical question was about how reality has come into being.

Epistemology is the heart of Metaphysics. It refers to the theory of knowledge. It talks about beliefs and ideas and tries to justify/evaluate them. Basically, knowledge is a justified true belief. The thirst for learning about reality or philosophical thinking is due to epistemology.

Doxa - common belief or popular opinion

Who is a Philosopher?

A person who formulates a perspective, refutes ideas, and critiques philosophical theories.

A philosopher can express their discontent with an existing idea and point out errors in these ideas. They should be able to prove whatever is acceptable using their knowledge and experience. This way, an idea would sustain through generations. Experience is the foundation of knowledge.

Ptolemy believed in the geocentric model of the solar system. On the other hand, Copernicus believed in the heliocentric model. People gradually shifted to Copernicus’ theory. This was known as the Copernican revolution. This developed a new philosophical study called critical thinking.

Metaphysical question

It refers to questions such as “Who am I?” “What constitutes my being?” and “Am I a body?”.

Philosophical inquiring initiates specific fundamental questions concerning humanity. What is life? What is suffering? What is truth? What is happiness? What is justice?

In science, we have 3 propositions or Laws of Nature

• Missed this
• Law of Causality
• Law of transformation of energy

The Law of causality is a metaphysical concept. To answer any of the metaphysical questions, we try to develop a causal relationship.

Philosophizing

To understand these questions or seek an answer to these questions, we need to study some philosophers. We need to have a deep reflection on experience.

Philosophizing is a part of our critical inquiry into these questions. A philosopher should be able to build a new perspective.

Lecture 3 29-07-21

Previously, we had discussed about the meaning and nature of philosophy. Philosophy begins with metaphysical inquiry. Science studies about the concrete objects in the universe. On the other hand, philosophy also deals with abstract concepts for knowledge building.

Order in first Philosophy

Aristotle’s philosophy is known as the first philosophy. He discusses about 3 branches of philosophy -

• Science of being qua being - Ontology - General nature of everything. Beings which tentatively exist, and whose understanding is not yet known.
• Highest kind of being - Theology - Appropriate to divinity.
• First principle - Universal science - True of every existing thing and lie at the basis of all proof or demonstration. This branch ties together all the concepts.

Qua - It is a technical expression Aristotle uses to indicate an aspect under which something is to be considered. The study of being ‘qua being’ concerns the most general class of things, viz., everything that exists.

The four causes or four explanations are, in Aristotelian thought, four fundamental types of answer to the question “why?” in the analysis of change or movement in nature:

• Material cause: “that out of which” it is made. God is an unmoved mover. According to Aristotle, the primordial “stuff” (fundamental particles) exist at the level of God. How is everything designed? Matter by itself does not have any identity. It gets its purpose from a being who gives it a meaning.
• Efficient Cause: the source of the object’s principle of change or stability.
• Formal Cause: the essence of the object.
• Final Cause: the end/goal of the object, or what the object is good for.

Every thing in existence must account for these four causes.

The controversial turning points

From the 1950s (BC), there was a dramatic change in the notion of knowledge. Some people (logical positivists) gained a scornful attitude towards metaphysics. They considered Metaphysics is meaningless for philosophy.

A philosopher called Gracia talks about how people tried to integrate metaphysics into philosophy.

“A holistic approach is desirable, but this cannot be reduced to a disorderly aggregate of diverse approaches.” (Gracia 2014: 310)

A computer scientist needs to communicate with people who studies metallurgy to better understand the underlying details of the hardware. Similarly, philosophers cannot completely abandon metaphysics for a greater understanding of the reality.

Epistemology

The term epistemology comes from the Greek words “episteme” and “logos”. “Episteme” can be translated as knowledge or understanding. In contrast, “logos” can be translated as argument or reason.

Knowledge is a justified true belief. Plato’s Theatetus - “Knowledge importantly depends on the nature of knower and her relationship to her environment.” We can’t provide proofs in philosophy. Some scientists try to show philosophy as a field in science.

Recordings - Set 1

Introduction to Philosophy

What is Philosophy? It is a humanistic discipline that investigates the nature of values and relationships that integrate humanity with or reality as a whole. It is the love of knowledge about the heart of reality, mind, values, etc. A philosopher needs to understand the very development of such a knowledge system.

The source of origin of philosophy

All knowledge systems are developed from human/thinking thoughts. Speculating about the very nature of existence is the basis of philosophical thinking.

Philosophical Thinking

A philosophical investigation is conceptual. Philosophers think through concepts, and their effort is to make sense of experiences and ideas concerning the subject matter. Philosophical thinking is speculative, Imaginative/creative, Reflective/Critical, Argumentative, and liberal/inclusive.

Speculative thinking - Knowledge is merely based on experience and intuitive insights beyond the expertise of observable facts. It highlights the power of imagination in forming or visualizing something - the existence of the underlying principle. For example, Pythagoras used numbers to speculate about reality. Thales theorized that five fundamental elements constitute reality. Imagination is the spirit of discovery/invention.

Imagination is the spirit of discovery/invention.

Creative Thinking - Rabindranath Tagore was a poet, philosopher and his poems are among the finest expressions of creativity that aspired to grasp the truth.

Reflective/critical thinking - Many philosophers and philosophical traditions accept critical thinking as a method of doing philosophy. It involves evaluating information, objective analysis of thoughts, skillful application of concepts, and synthesis of ideas.

Argumentative thinking - Philosophical thinking involves arguments. Logic takes us from one set of thoughts to another collection of ideas.

Liberal and inclusive - Philosophy would have been a disaster if people were not open-minded/ receptive to new ideas and thoughts. Although, sometimes dominant philosophical traditions prevail - Philosophical Blindness.

Philosophical enterprise demands self-scrutiny to eliminate prejudices and dogmas and also competitions - R. Solomon 2001:100.

Metaphysics

Metaphysics was the central idea of philosophical discourse. Philosophy began with metaphysical inquiries. It raises certain fundamental questions regarding the universe and man’s existence in it.

Metaphysics talk about everything that exists or may exist. It is also known as the first philosophy.

There were some controversial turning points in the evolution of metaphysics. During the renaissance in the 17th century, the tough-minded philosophers disrupted the glow of metaphysical thinking.

Aristotle: Metaphysics as First Philosophy

He wrote a Treatise on Metaphysics - ta meta ta physica. The Order in First Philosophy is discussed here in lecture 3.

Metaphysics has the power of integrating knowledge across all fields of science. Therefore, it still has relevance in the contemporary world.

Now, we begin studying various philosopher and their philosophies.

Thales (624-546 BC) - Thales of Miletus

He is known as the First Philosopher. He is the founder of the Ionian School of Science. Thales motivated people to think about reality keeping aside religion and mythical wisdom.

What did Thales pursue?

He embarked upon the study of things. He awakened people to their awareness. He questioned the existing system of knowledge and the frameworks of misunderstanding. He evoked a desire to find out the right knowledge.

He wanted to study reality as it is and not how it appears.

Everything is Water

Water has no shape, no form of its own. Thales remarked that water is something vital for the generation and growth of all things.

Lecture 4 02-08-21

Our explanations are always causal. Justification is also a part of causal explanation. A decision is not explanatory because it depends on interpretation.

Skepticism

Pyrrho (360BC to 270BC) started this idea that truth is never known, and having complete knowledge is impossible. We can doubt everything we know. Everything that is seen may not always be true.

Skepticism - Uncertainty of Human Knowledge

Doubting is a form of learning. For example, Rene Descartes, used a mathematical form of skepticism (Probability?).

Sources of Knowledge in India Philosophy

• Prathyakhsha - Perception
• Anumana - Inference
• Upamana - Comparison
• Sabdda - Testimony

These are the means through which knowledge is gained via experience.

Foundation of Knowledge

The rationalists believed reason is the primary source of knowledge, whereas empiricists believed experience is the primary source of knowledge. We shall learn about both these schools of knowledge in due time.

Logic

This is another branch of Philosophy like epistemology. Logic is known as Tarka shastra in Indian philosophy. Laws of thought like the law of identity, the law of contradiction, etc., were developed using a human’s thinking structure.

Tarka - Arguments

It involves deductive and inductive arguments. Aristotle introduced deductive arguments. These arguments are in the premise-predicate form. The premises are based on universal truths. Francis Bacon presented inductive arguments. He spoke about \(5\) different types of induction.

• Method of Agreement
• Method of Difference
• Joint Method of agreement in presence of difference
• Method of Concomitant variation
• Method of Residues

In this realm, assumptions are based on experience.

Therefore, along with epistemological inquiry, one must check for the arguments associated with the theory. Logic is an integral part of Philosophy.

Ethics / Aesthetics

Philosophy also deals with the study of values and beauty. This is also a branch of Philosophy along with Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Logic.

Lecture 5 03/08/21

We shall study about Thales now. Perspectives are different from Opinions. To talk about philosophy, we need to study the history. We are going to start with the pre-Socratic period.

Thales of Miletus

In those days, there was no distinction between religions and mystical stuff. Most of the stuff discussed in the lecture has already been summarised here.

Lecture 6 05/08/21

We will study Pythagoras in this lecture. We are still in the pre-Socratic period.

Pythagoras

He believed numbers could be used to explain the reality. This was quite different from Thales’s perception who believed water, a tangible element, is the fundamental part of reality. However, numbers are intangible! His thoughts were unique and created a blend - Mysticism and Mathematics. He also loved music. Mathematics maintains demonstrative deductive arguments.

Philosophical Contribution

He introduced the concept of deciphering the inner working of the mind/ purification of intellectual and perceptual abilities.

Self-evidence is a deeply influential notion and Pythagoras applied to the perspectives of moral claims. He introduced the Axiomatic method. Axioms were self-evident/ fundamental propositions.

Lecture 7 09/08/21

Now, we shall study Heraclitus. He was not discussed in the previous years.

Heraclitus

His ideologies are pretty different from the previous philosophers. Thales talked about a tangible substance - water, and Pythagoras used an intangible substance - Water. Although, they were all natural philosophers - learned about reality from nature.

Heraclitus talks about “Becoming”. Being to Becoming. He tried to understand the process of change, transformation, origin, and decay. He used Fire as the first principle. One of his ideas was “Fire lives the death of air, and air lives the death of fire; water lives the death of earth, earth that of water”. He brought upon the concept of Universal Flux and cyclical existence.

His ideas can be understood as the primitive version of “Matter can neither be created nor destroyed”. There is unity in the world and unity resulting from diversity. The notion of Logos - Reason in Things. Logos is also translated as the essence of things. Cosmic process - everything is changing in order; there is nothing arbitrary. He also believed in the concept of soul - cosmic fire. Human thoughts are a subordinate to the Universal Reason or divine reasoning.

Lecture 8 10/08/21

We shall study about the Socratic period. This phase of philosophy consists of 3 main philosophers - Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. How do Epistemology and Metaphysics differ? How does Ontology fit in? We shall discuss about it now

Before the Arrival of Socrates

Men-centric philosophy prevailed during this period. The Greek society developed in the fields of Greek history, Poetry, and Medicine. People generally believed in divinity and occult mystical powers. Also, the zeal of investigation was intense. However, Socrates sought for morals and ethics. He didn’t want to blindly follow the existing beliefs, and wanted to discover his own version of the truth.

This age also saw the rise of spirit of independent reflection and criticism. People tried to avoid the false paths, and departed from the school of speculative thought.

The beginning of the Socratic period

There was a shift in the way of philosophical thinking. There was an establishment of Democratic institution fostered in the new age in Athens. Traditional religion, morality, science, etc. were subject to criticism. There was an other city which gave less importance to knowledge and gave more importance to power - Spartan.

Subjectivism is the theory that talks about each individual’s perception. If one tries to assert his truth as the only true truth, then there would be chaos.

Sophists - A representative of New Movement in Greece. Socrates was a part of this group. However, Socrates was executed because he defied the truth of the group. More on that later. Sophists were wise and skillful, professional teachers, travellers, etc. They used to train people in dialectics, grammar, rhetorism, and oratory. Sophists had great communication skills.

“Every individual has the ability to measure things” - Protagoras.

Some technical jargon

Oracle - God, Prediction of Future/ Apollo

Oracle of Delphi - Expensice Oracle. Delphi is a person.

Rhetoric - Flow of Speech before the state or Public

Dialectic - A form of argumentative reasoning involving frequent question and answers. It began with the questions “what is justice?”

In Dialectical interrogation the questioner attempts to lead the respondent into contradiction - Aporia. This is a typical scene in a courtroom.

Socrates believed an unexamined life is not worth leading.

Lecture 9 12/08/21

Plato conceptualized soul as a thinking medium.

Philo - Love, Sophia - Knowledge

Philosophy is love of knowledge

Socrates had fundamental questions through which he tried to explain the reality. “Life is suffering” - Buddha. These questions sustain through time, and are relevant to every living being.

Some philosophers accept belief as the source of knowledge.

Socrates is an important philosopher but he didn’t publish anything. His student, Plato, documented all of Socrates’ dialogues and beliefs. Socrates believed in truth, and he went to great lengths to show his belief in his truth. In the end, Socrates accepted death, but did not accept to let go of his truth.

In those days, people visited “Oracles” to know about their future. Oracles were believed to be wise humans who had immense knowledge.

Lecture 10 16/08/21

Socrates believed virtue has to be practiced.

Virtue - behavior showing high moral standards.

In those days, Athenians depended upon the Sophists’ guidance. However, Socrates believed every human had the power to acquire knowledge for himself.

Socrates urged for clear and rational thinking. He believed knowledge and virtue were necessary for a just society. Actions may be rational, but they need not be ethical. One needs to have moral courage.

What is knowledge?

Socrates believed every individual must understand the meaning of mortality - Moral knowledge. It was necessary for resolving social conflicts and establishing a just society.

Knowledge is necessary and sufficient for virtue. Can virtue be taught? Socrates thought it could not be taught. One can become virtuous by practicing virtue. Every individual must reflect on oneself and examine whatever they are engaged in.

Agony of Athenians

Athenians were not ready to accept and evaluate themselves. “Arrogance”. Socrates was raising some fundamental questions about the so-called wise Sophists. He was questioning their practice, and people were not ready to accept this.

Need to watch 3 recorded lectures on Socrates!

Lecture 11 17/08/21

Now, we shall study Plato. As previously discussed, Plato was a disciple of Socrates. His ideology is summarised as follows.

Plato - Theory of Ideas

The central theme of the theory of ideas is the nature of the essence of things and how we perceive them. Socrates was interested in moral knowledge and ethics. Plato was inclined to know about the definitions of the very concepts discussed by Socrates. He also gave importance to Ontology and Metaphysics. He felt this was missing in Socrates’ ideas. Therefore, Metaphysics and Ontology once again came into the discourse of philosophy.

Plato and his Philosophical problem

Plato tried to compose learnings from other philosophers like Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Protagoras. This comprehensive outlook shows the link between epistemology, ontology, and ethics - What are the meanings of life and its existence?

• Plato believed that genuine knowledge is changeless, eternal, and absolute (from Parmenides).
• Sense experiences vary, and therefore sensuous appearances keep changing (from Heraclitus).
• Plato emphasized that the real can be comprehended through reason.

Dialectical Method

“The dialectical method consists, first, in the comprehension of scattered particulars into one idea, and second, the division of the idea into species, that is in the process of generalization and classification. In this way alone can there be clear and consistent thinking; we pass from concepts to concept, upward and downward, generalizing and particularizing, combining and dividing, synthesizing and analysing, carving out concepts as sculptor craves a beautiful figure out of a block of marble”

Socrates practiced this, but Plato conceptualized this idea. This method consists of

• Comprehension of scattered particulars into one idea
• The division of the idea into species for generalization.

In this way, one can follow clear and consistent thinking. This is the foundation of deductive reasoning.

Concepts, Ideas, and Forms

Plato’s originality lies in raising the issue of universals. Coming to conclusions using representative of general classes, say, trees. Similar because they partake of similarity. Plato makes a distinction between a universal and a particular.

Forms are a manifestation of similarity. Humans are all similar. A quality of “human-ness”. Just and beautiful because they partake of justice and beauty.

What is an idea?

Plato disagreed with Parmenides on this topic. Parmenides stated that an idea is not a thought, whereas Plato theorized that an idea may be an object of thought. Parmenides believed that there was only one idea. On the other hand, Plato devised that there are multiple ideas, and they are indivisible.

Ideas are not known to us because human knowledge is not absolute - Parmenides. This statement again goes back to Skepticism. Plato said, “Ideas are universal and eternal and not subject to change”. One can see a horse, but one cannot see “horseness”. This inconceivable ontological concept is intelligible. The knowledge of particulars is given to us by the sense experiences, unlike the universals. Therefore, these ideas correspond to abstract concepts. They exist in an independent realm, are non-temporal, and participate in particulars.

We say ideas are non-temporal because particulars are temporal/ have a finite existence.

Epistemology and Metaphysics

Plato says the soul is the knowledge of Forms. It is identical to the concept of the mind today. A soul can contemplate on pure eternal ideas, and knowledge is latent in the soul.

The idea of Unity and Diversity. The idea of Good is Logos.

Logos - The principle of divine reason or cosmic order

The meaning of Good cannot be grasped by the senses. Unity (Metaphysical form) of universals and Diversity (Ontological) of particulars. Ideas are only intelligible. They can be learned by dialectic methods.

For a realist, ideas are an illusion. However, Plato believed ideas are real. Our perception through our senses is not the actual reality. A realist believes in sensory experiences. In contrast, reality may be different from what we perceive.

Difference between a soul and an idea? The soul is a part of human life. The soul is eternal, according to Plato. We can relate to forms using our souls. A soul can relate itself to ideas.

Plato did not believe in the knowledge obtained by senses. This is because he believed Heraclitus’ and Protagorus’ theory that “All things are in the process of becoming”. Hence, Plato believed that knowledge of sense experience is subject to change, and therefore unreliable.

Lecture 12 23/08/21

Watch the 3 videos uploaded for Plato

Platonic Rationalism - a culmination of all the ideas from various philosophers. Plato questioned if truth can be subjectively justified. What is true knowledge? What knowledge has eternal significance? Forms carry the essence of things (“horseness”).

Is there any progress in Philosophy? Our understanding of the notion of justice has considerably improved since Plato’s period. Humility is essential for gaining knowledge. Reality may not be what it appears!

Plato believed that all knowledge is reminiscence, this reminiscence is called anamnesis

Lecture 13 24/08/21

Forms are in an independent realm. Ideas, a metaphysical concept (?), are being related to epistemological concepts like true knowledge. Check out Plato’s cave of reality to better understand his “theory of ideas”.

Plato’s ideology in a nutshell:

I give up writing notes for this lec.

Recordings 3

I didn’t write the notes for Socrates part. This is for Plato!

Plato - Theory of Ideas

Plato integrates epistemology, ontology and ethics. Plato believed that genuine knowledge is changeless, eternal and absolute (Parmenides). The concept of genuine knowledge and sense perception/ reality and appearance. Sophists believed Opinions and Knowledge are one and the same. Plato didn’t believe so.

Plato tried to obtain genuine knowledge using dialectical methods. The Sophists’ concept of good varied from time to time. Plato wanted to point this out, and show that their thinking was inconsistent.

Plato’s originality lies in the raising the issue of universals (“horseness”). Plato’s epistemology raises the issue of universals, and how these universals participate/ relate themselves to particulars. This is the intuition behind “Theory of ideas”. Ideas are not known to us, because human knowledge is not absolute according to Parmenides. However, Plato argued that ideas can be grasped using reason - Soul is akin to ideas.

Plato’s Psychology and Ethics

Humans are considered as agents. Plato studies about what motivates these agents to perform actions. Which actions are good or bad? Kind of like the setting for Reinforcement learning. What is the nature of meaning of the good, and how can we justify such a life to reason?

Composition of Agency

An agent is composed of a living body and a soul. The living body decays with time. However, Plato believed soul is immortal. He thought of the body-soul; relation as the myth of a charioteer.

Reason, Spirit, and Appetite - Tripartite Relation

• The parts of the soul - Pure Reason - Rational part - Intellectual activities
• The soul enters into the body having moral and irrational part. The irrational part/ spirited part has nobler impulses - Anger, Ambition, Love - Faculty of decision
• Desire on the other hand represents lower appetites/ passion - Appetitive Faculty. Pleasure of senses and pleasure of reason.

The neutral state between pleasure and pain with relation to preceding pain and earlier pleasure - psychological relativity.

The body is an impediment of knowledge, from which the soul must free itself to order to behold truth in its purity. According to Plato, every agent must have self-knowledge for making good decisions. “All knowledge is reminiscence and all learning is a reawakening”.

The ethical ideal according to Plato is about Justice and Happiness. The soul should not be driven by senses! “The more reasonable the desire, the more pleasurable its gratification”.

Moral perfection lies in the power of contemplation and more importantly in the enduring power of truth. One must give importance to the rational element of the soul.

Lecture 14 26/08/21

Dialectic is a form of reasoning. It’s the method of connecting different ideas and generalizing stuff. We shall start discussing Aristotle now. Aristotle is the disciple of Plato and the mentor of Alexander the Great. He made significant contributions to science as a discipline.

Additionally, he formalized the realm of deductive reasoning, a direct extension to Plato’s conceptual understanding. Also, Causal explanation is another outstanding contribution of Aristotle. Finally, Aristotle believed form and matter are inseparable.

Aristotle (384 - 322 BC)

He is known for Metaphysics, Syllogism, and Virtue Ethics. Aristotle made a distinction between metaphysics and science.

Aristotle’s Problem

Aristotle believed that the love of wisdom must be the sole aim of philosophers, but they must be consistent and scientific. There was a lack of scientific explanation in Plato’s Philosophy which Aristotle sought to address. He questioned Plato’s conception of forms/ideas and denied the division between ideas and material.

Ethics is anti-hedonistic and intuitive. Aristotle considered Happiness and Pleasure are different, which is the opposite of what Plato thought.

Hedonistic - Engaging in the pursuit of pleasure; sensually self-indulgent

According to Aristotle, form and particulars are not different. Plato doesn’t talk about the progressive change of forms as he believed they were eternal. However, Aristotle tried to include change through the “Theory of Causation”.

• Forms are not apart from things but inherent in them; they are not transcendent but immanent.
• Form and matter are not separate but eternally together: matter combines with the form to constitute individual things
• The phenomenal world is not a mere imitation or copy/ shadow of the real world. Instead, it is the real world!
• Aristotle advocated realism and encouraged natural science.

The above points summarise how different Aristotle was in comparison to Plato.

Philosophy and the Sciences

He had an Organic and teleological viewpoint of the universe. Everything in the universe has a purpose, and that is how the world came into being.

Teleological - relating to or involving the explanation of phenomena in terms of the purpose they serve rather than of the cause by which they arise.

He believed experience is the basis of knowledge. Saying that, he thought reason and experience were not significantly different. Genuine knowledge is not mere acquaintance with facts but knowing their reasons and causes. Philosophy and science, in a broad sense, have a rational basis. Science studies the first cause of things.

Metaphysics

Study of all things as their beings. Analysis of first philosophy. Study of qua being.

How is this different from Ontology?

A thing is a thing by virtue of something that it is. That is, everything with a form has a function.

Classification of Sciences

• Logic - Method of inquiry employed in all other sciences
• Theoretical Sciences - Pure abstract knowledge - Maths, Physics, Biology
• Practical Sciences - Knowledge employing conduct - Ethics, Politics
• Productive Sciences - Knowledge is subordinated by the criterion of beauty; Aristotle’s poetics is an investigation in this sphere of aesthetics.

Lecture 15 30/08/21

qua being - A state of higher existence

Aristotle continued…

Plato thought ‘form’ and ‘matter’ existed at different levels. However, Aristotle says form and matter are inseparable.

Potentiality and Actuality: Explanation of Change

Clay is the primordial stuff. A pot potentially exists in clay. How can a pot be actualized? - Efficient Cause

The Form of Pot - The structure given to the object pot - Formal Cause.

The final use of Pot - Final Cause.

Every object that is created has a purpose of serving - a teleological view of reality. Present science represents things in more objectively and does not use the teleological view.

Logic

Aristotle was dedicated to segregate Logic from the remaining branches. Logic is the method of reasoning for the acquisition of genuine knowledge.

Truth - Something which cannot be other than it is - Necessity

Contingent Statements - Not necessarily true

Demonstration in the form of Deduction - Syllogism. It’s about a form of an argument consisting of Premised and Conclusions.

Logic as a form of thinking

Form constitutes the essence of things. Human reasoning has the power of discerning the form. Thought and being/ existence coincide according to Aristotle. “Rational knowledge is implicit in the mind but experience is necessary to make reason aware of them.” - Thilly.

Syllogism

It’s a form of reasoning to which all deduction is reducible.

• Terms
• Propositions. There are 4 types of propositions as classified by Aristotle
  • A - Universal Affirmative \(\forall\)
  • E - Universal Negative \(\neg \forall\)
  • I - Particular Affirmative \(\exists\)
  • O - Particular Negative \(\neg \exists\)
• Moods - The types of propositions used in the arguments/proof.
• Figures
• Rules
  • The fallacy of undistributed middle - The middle term must be distributed at least once in any of the premises.
  • Illicit major/minor - If a term is distributed in the conclusion then it must be distributed in the premises.
  • The fallacy of two exclusive premises - From two negative premises no conclusion follows.
  • At least one of the premises must be universal.
  • If there is any particular premise, then the conclusion must be particular.
  • If one the premises is negative, then the conclusion will be negative.

Lecture 16 02/09/21

Listen to Aristotle Recorded lectures

Aristotle’s Psychology & Ethics

We again talk about the tripartite relation of soul. Layers of soul - Rational, Sensible, and Nutritional. Body and soul are related as matter and form. Soul is the form of the body, it makes the body as organic whole having purposes as a unit. Soul moves the body and perceives sensible objects. It is characterized by sensation, feeling, and motive. It controls the lower and vital function.

The nature Reason - Potentially powerful to carry out functions of thinking. Conceptual thought is actualised reason. Active reason can be identified with universal reason or the mind of the God. It does not arise in the course of soul’s development as do the other psychic functions. Active reason is the divine mind coming to the soul from without.

Creative Reason is the pure actuality; its concepts are actualised by it, the essences are directly cognized. Creative reason is absolutely immortal, imperishable, and not bound to the body.

Aristotle thought desire gave birth to ideas. The layers of soul is not top-down but bottom-up! Reason is placed at the highest level. Aristotle did not identify mind with soul!!!!

mind - soul

Rationalism - Actual Reason

Ethics - Eudaimonia (Highest Good)

Aristotle’s metaphysics and psychology form the basis of his theory of ethics which is the first comprehensive scientific theory of morality. Aristotle possible aimed answering the Socratic question of Highest Good. Ethics, a study of morality, talks about means and ends. Gather good karma to achieve the highest good.

Is pleasure good? Aristotle says pleasure and good are different.

Virtue

Intellectual and Moral Virtue. Every individual is not born as a rational person. As a person transpires in the society, he acquires rational thoughts. Having reason is not enough to talk about morality. You can be a rational person, but need not be moral! Therefore, Aristotle talks about 2 different types of virtue.

• Intellectual Virtue - Virtue of Wisdom, quest for knowledge, perfection in thinking conceptually and coherently - and insight
• Phronesis - Practical virtue
• Moral virtue - Perfect action of emotional - Impulsive function consists of assuring rational attitude. Temperance, courage, liberality.

Virtue is a kind of moderation in that it aims at the mean - the mean between excess and deficiencies. Courage is a mean between foolhardiness and cowardice. Liberality is a mean between extravagance and avarice. Modesty is a mean between bashfulness and shamelessness. Wow that was tough.

Moral judgement is not a subjective opinion o arbitrary choice. Moral conduct must be decided by the right kind of man. Virtuous men are the standard and measure of things. They exhibit moral character and stable conduct.

Virtue is a disposition. A person is not born with virtuousness, but acquires it.

Justice

Justice is a virtue implying a relation to others, for it promotes the interest of another.

Recordings 4

Aristotle - First

Soul is form of body

Material is same as form

Mind is different from body

Mind is immortal

Mind has the power to think

Nature of reason

Thinking deals with concepts

Thought is actualised reason

Active reason and creative reason

Rational actions are backed by thoughts

Souls drives the reason, mind does the thinking, body applies the thought

Active reason should correspond to universal reason

Active reason is divine mind coming to the soul

Creative reason is pure actuality

Aristotle - Second

Highest good derived from Socrates

Scientific theory of morality

Hedomania happiness

Notion of ethics in metaphysics

An action is causally explainable

Good action is virtuous - ethics life

Action is the means to achieve a higher end - Supreme purpose

What is highest good? Lies in the very nature of things. Human beings are necessarily to perform good actions just as knife is necessarily to cut things

Function of human being is rational thinking and reason

Pleasure? It’s a secondary consequence. Not identical to happiness

Intellectual and Moral virtues. Intellectual for finding true knowledge. Performing action knowingly.

Self knowledge for deciding virtuous actions

Temperance, and 3 other things for moral virtue

Mean of extremes

Mean varies with individuals

Virtuous man exhibits moral character

Virtue is a disposition too - inherent in things

Aristotle - Third

Self realisation

True friend is alter ego

Justice? Relation to others. Laws are inclusive.

Life of contemplation is worth living

Lecture 19

We will study Rene Descartes now.

Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650)

He was a mathematician, and also made great contributions to philosophy using Mathematics as a method. During this time, the philosophers came back to the original metaphysical question, “What constitutes reality?”. They also gave importance to the epistemological question, “What is the ultimate knowledge?”. The modern philosophers, having made great advances in science, sought to find a scientific explanation for the above questions.

Rene Descartes primarily focused on Epistemology. Descartes was a rationalist philosopher, and therefore he could not ignore metaphysics. He believed that the knowledge about the world is connected to knowledge about the self. Descartes also tried to establish the foundation for theological arguments.

Descartes’ Metaphysics / Classification of Sciences

Metaphysics contains the principle of knowledge concerning the principal attributes of God, the immateriality of soul, and all the clear and simple ideas that we possess. Physics, on the other hand, is the principle of material things, we examine in general, how the universe is framed/ particular nature of earth, and all the bodies commonly found.

Philosophy as a whole is like a tree whose roots are metaphysics, trunk is physics, and branches are all the other sciences. These main sciences can be reduced to medicine, mechanics, and morals.

Method and Criterion of Knowledge

Knowledge cannot be built on history but also requires the intervention of method. His method is famously known as Descartes’ Methodological Skepticism. Philosophy discovers the truth in terms of mathematics.

Methodological Skepticism

Descartes used both deduction and induction. He believed both the methods are equally important to reach conclusions. Senses are sometimes deceiving. Sometimes, the mathematical demonstrations can also be doubted. Memory can be deceptive and so its presentations.

Doubt implies a Doubter

What kind of activity is doubting?

Thinking - res cogitans - The mind is a thinking thing

I think = Cogito - Most self-evident proposition

I doubt, therefore, I think, therefore, I am,

Dubito ergo cogito ergo sum